One of the best books ever written about celebrity culture has a very evocative and apt title: Intimate Strangers.
That title captures the paradoxical relationship that exists between celebrities and their audiences. Details about celebrities’ personal lives, relationships and daily routines shared through media create a sense of intimacy with fans. Despite this sense of familiarity, they remain strangers—people we don’t actually know or interact with personally.
The phrase captures the illusion of closeness that media creates between the public and these public figures.
For large segments of the population, regarding celebrities as intimate friends can create a comforting connection, as people project their own emotions, values or desires onto celebrities, feeling a shared experience or admiration. Celebrities serve as aspirational figures, role models or companions, shaping personal identity, lifestyle choices and even moral perspectives.
But this relationship is one-sided. The intimacy people feel with celebrities is constructed, based on a carefully curated public persona, often mediated by marketing and media representation. It can lead to unrealistic expectations or an overinvestment in the lives of individuals who remain, in reality, strangers. This phenomenon also blurs the lines between private and public life, leading people to feel entitled to details of celebrities’ personal affairs, while celebrities themselves often navigate complex boundaries between their public image and personal privacy.
Ultimately, the phrase “intimate strangers” speaks to the peculiar, emotionally charged bond that modern celebrity culture creates, where people feel a connection to someone they’ve never met and likely never will.
The word “celebrity” refers to the status of being widely known and admired by the public, often due to achievements in fields like entertainment, sports, politics or social media. A celebrity is a person whose name, image and persona are extensively recognized beyond their immediate professional domain, attracting public fascination and media attention. The essence of celebrity lies not just in fame but in public engagement, with fans and media often shaping the narrative around the celebrity’s personal life, values and influence.
The concept of celebrity can be traced back to antiquity. Figures like Julius Caesar, Cleopatra and Alexander the Great were widely known for their political achievements, but their reputations also carried mythic qualities. In medieval Europe, saints, kings and heroes were celebrated, but the reach of their fame was limited by geography and oral tradition.
The modern idea of celebrity began to crystallize in the 18th century, spurred by the growth of print media. Lord Byron, the first celebrity poet, enjoyed wide public adulation and scrutiny. The 19th century saw the emergence of mass-produced newspapers, posters and eventually photography, amplifying the reach of famous figures. Stage actors, opera singers and even infamous criminals became celebrities as their exploits were shared in penny presses.
The early 20th century brought an explosion of celebrity culture through film. Silent film stars like Charlie Chaplin and later, movie goddesses and gods like Marilyn Monroe, James Dean and Elizabeth Taylor, became larger-than-life figures. Hollywood’s studio system was a factory for creating and maintaining celebrity images, constructing personae that were often far removed from the actors’ real lives. At this time, the idea of celebrity began to merge with commercialism, as stars were used to promote products and lifestyles.
As television became a household staple, the reach of celebrity expanded further. Musicians like Elvis Presley and the Beatles became international phenomena, and political figures like John F. Kennedy were as famous for their public personae as for their politics. By the 1980s and 1990s, the idea of the superstar in sports, music and entertainment took hold, as figures like Michael Jordan, Madonna and Oprah Winfrey became global icons.
In earlier times, celebrity was more closely linked to concrete achievements—political, artistic or intellectual. As media evolved, particularly in the 20th century, the persona of the celebrity began to outweigh their accomplishments. Celebrities became public figures who were admired as much for their looks, charisma or scandalous behavior as for their professional success.
The 21st century brought a democratization of celebrity through reality television and, later, social media. Shows like Keeping Up With the Kardashians and American Idol introduced the idea that everyday people could become a celebrity. Social media platforms like Instagram, TikTok and YouTube further changed the nature of celebrity by allowing individuals to cultivate their own public personas. Influencers, who generally lack traditional accomplishments, became celebrities through viral content, promoting a new era of fame tied to digital presence and followers.
Over the past half century, a number of scholars from media studies, communication, sociology, history and cultural studies have examined how the culture of celebrity has become a dominant force not only in popular culture but in the fine arts, politics and everyday life, as well as how celebrities shape cultural values, political dynamics and social interactions. Key studies include:
- Daniel Boorstin’s The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America (1962), which famously argued that celebrities are “well-known for their well-knownness,” critiquing the way modern media creates fame that is detached from genuine achievement. This book described the rise of pseudo-events—events staged solely for media coverage—which contribute to the creation of celebrity culture. Boorstin saw the proliferation of celebrity as a symptom of a society that prioritizes image over substance.
- Richard Dyer’s Stars (1979) examines how celebrities function as cultural texts, embodying and reflecting societal values and ideologies. Dyer argues that stars serve as sites of meaning production, representing larger cultural issues like class, gender, race and sexuality. His analysis focuses on how stars are constructed by media and audiences and how they shape cultural narratives.
- Joshua Gamson’s Claims to Fame: Celebrity in Contemporary America (1994) explores how celebrity functions in a postmodern, media-saturated world, reflecting broader trends toward commodification, image-making and media manipulation. This book also notes the role of audience participation in the construction of fame, examining phenomena like reality TV and fan culture.
- David Marshall’s Celebrity and Power: Fame in Contemporary Culture (1997) examines celebrity’s role in shaping social and political power. Celebrities act as cultural intermediaries, influencing public opinion and political discourse and are used to market ideas, values and products. The book shows how the boundaries between entertainment, commerce and politics have become increasingly porous.
- Chris Rojek’s Celebrity (2001), a study of the sociology of celebrity, distinguishes between ascribed, achieved and attributed celebrity and argues that the commodification of fame has permeated political, social and economic life. Rojek also examines the performative nature of celebrity and the blurred line between celebrities’ public and private personas.
- Graeme Turner’s Understanding Celebrity (2004) critiques the “celebrification” of contemporary culture, where the boundaries between the public and private self are increasingly eroded by social media and reality TV. This book suggests that the culture of celebrity has profound political implications of celebrity, with the focus on individual fame distracting from collective social and political movements.
- P. David Marshall’s The Celebrity Persona Pandemic (2016) explores the pandemic of celebrity in the digital age. It claims that the rise of social media has amplified the celebrity culture, making it pervasive in everyday life. Ordinary individuals can now curate celebrity-like personas and the distinction between fame and ordinary identity has become blurred.
Key themes in the scholarship on celebrity include:
- The commodification of fame: Celebrities are not just individuals but brands, whose image is constructed, marketed and sold.
- The blurred lines between public and private: Various media and online platforms have eroded the distinction between public and private life; celebrities and, increasingly, ordinary people curate their private lives for public consumption, which impacts both personal identity and broader cultural norms.
- Celebrity as cultural texts: Celebrities serve as cultural symbols on which issues of race, class and gender are inscribed onto celebrity personas and which influence the way the public thinks about identity and morality.
- Celebrity and politics: Celebrities increasingly serve as political figures, using their platform to influence policy, shape public opinion or even run for office. This phenomenon raises questions about the role of image in political discourse.
- The democratization of fame: The rise of reality television and social media has given birth to a new kind of celebrity, where ordinary individuals can achieve fame without traditional talent or accomplishment. This has changed the dynamics of fame, making it more accessible and performative.
Celebrities often embody the cultural values or ideals of their time. Nineteen fifties Hollywood stars, like Marilyn Monroe, reflected postwar America’s fascination with beauty, glamour, heterosexuality and evolving gender roles. In contrast, the counterculture movement of the 1960s and 1970s celebrated figures like John Lennon and Janis Joplin, who represented rebellion, peace and social change. Celebrities of the 1980s, like Madonna and Michael Jackson, symbolized individualism, excess and the rise of global pop culture.
Some celebrities reflect the political and social concerns of their time. Muhammad Ali and Jane Fonda became famous not only for their athletic and acting achievements but for their activism in the civil rights and antiwar movements. Today, celebrities like Greta Thunberg or Colin Kaepernick are symbolic of environmental activism and social justice.
The concept of celebrity has evolved from being linked to notable achievements to an emphasis on persona, image and personal narrative. The celebrities of any given time reveal the cultural, technological and social dynamics at play, from the divinely inspired heroes of antiquity to today’s social media influencers. Understanding the shifting nature of celebrity provides insight into broader cultural values and the forces shaping public life.
In most cases, celebrities’ fame proves to be fleeting. Although some figures’ reputation endures across time, most are subject to the inevitable decline of memory and recognition, with those who are lavishly celebrated eventually forgotten or overshadowed by newer cultural icons.
Cultural history is filled with examples of once-celebrated figures who have faded into obscurity. In his poem “Ozymandias,” Percy Bysshe Shelley captured this idea vividly, illustrating how even the mightiest of rulers are eventually forgotten, their monuments crumbling into dust. Similarly, countless writers, artists and public figures who were once highly regarded in their time are no longer part of contemporary discourse.
For instance, Marie Corelli, a best-selling novelist in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, was once considered one of the most famous authors in the English-speaking world. However, her works have largely faded from collective memory. Today, her books are rarely read and she is no longer regarded as a literary giant.
Cultural shifts also contribute to the transience of fame. What one era celebrates may be disregarded or criticized by future generations. Rudyard Kipling, who was highly regarded in his time and even won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1907, has faced posthumous criticism for his imperialist views, causing his reputation to diminish over time.
The fate of actors and entertainers also underlines fame’s transience. Douglas Fairbanks was one of the most famous silent film stars of the early 20th century, known for his swashbuckling roles and dashing presence. Despite his enormous popularity in his day, his name is now largely unfamiliar to most modern audiences, his fame having been eclipsed by later generations of film icons.
While most fame is ephemeral, there are exceptions. Certain figures or works transcend their historical moment and achieve a kind of cultural immortality. But in most instances, the fluidity of memory, taste and values means that most cultural figures fade into obscurity as societal interests evolve and newer voices emerge. This impermanence is part of the cyclical nature of culture, where the past is continuously reinterpreted, celebrated or discarded, shaping how we view and remember individuals across time.
Why, then, do some reputations endure while many others, popular in their own time, are forgotten? Here are a few answers.
Some individuals create works or ideas that resonate across generations because they speak to universal human experiences, emotions or questions. In contrast, many cultural figures or works that enjoyed significant popularity during their time lacked this timeless dimension. Their appeal may have been tied to specific historical or cultural contexts and as those contexts changed, their relevance diminished.
Enduring reputations are often reinforced through cultural institutions such as education, museums and public memorials. On the other hand, many once-famous figures, like Marie Corelli, lack institutional support and canonization.
Figures whose works or ideas align with prevailing cultural or political ideologies often endure. Conversely, figures, like Kipling, associated with ideologies or ideas that become unfashionable or politically unacceptable, often fall into obscurity.
Figures whose works and ideas are flexible enough to be reinterpreted in different contexts tend to survive. In contrast, figures whose works are seen as too rigid or specific to their time often fade from relevance. Their ideas or contributions may not be adaptable enough to survive changing cultural and intellectual climates.
Sometimes reputations endure because a myth is created around the individual or their work, with Vincent van Gogh, the symbol of the struggling artistic giant, or Einstein, the symbol of scientific genius, whose image has been mythologized beyond his actual achievements. Figures who do not inspire such mythmaking often disappear from collective memory. They may have been successful, but without a narrative that resonates with future generations, their fame tends to be ephemeral.
As societal values shift, reputations can rise or fall depending on how well the figure’s work aligns with the new values. Jane Austen’s popularity surged in the late 20th century as feminist interpretations of her novels gained traction, aligning her works with contemporary values regarding gender and society. Conversely, those whose work reflects values that have since been discredited are often forgotten or actively erased from cultural memory.
In today’s popular culture, reputations tend to rise and fall even more quickly than in the past. Rapid media cycles diminish the shelf life of fame, as the public constantly seeks the next viral moment or trending figure. Also, popular culture thrives on novelty and spectacle, rather than depth or lasting value. A celebrity or artist might rise to prominence based on a hit single, a viral video or a blockbuster movie, but maintaining that attention requires consistent reinvention and new material.
The fickleness of public taste means that figures who are celebrated for their mass appeal may struggle to maintain relevance as the cultural landscape shifts.
Overexposure often lead to audience fatigue, resulting in a backlash or decline in popularity. A pop culture that prioritizes novelty and engagement constantly pushes new content and figures into the spotlight, while older or less engaging figures are pushed aside. This, too, creates a cycle of rapid rise and fall.
Figures who fail to innovate or reinvent themselves or evolve with the times or who are unable to stay ahead of cultural trends risk being left behind.
Scandal can lead to both rapid rises and falls in reputation. Figures who gain attention through controversy may experience brief spikes in popularity or infamy, but such notoriety is often unsustainable.
In addition, pop culture figures who resonate with one generation or moment may not align with the values or tastes of the next. What is considered fashionable, relevant or meaningful changes rapidly in popular culture, making it difficult for certain figures to maintain their relevance across different cultural shifts.
Andy Warhol’s famous prediction that “everyone will be world-famous for 15 minutes” reflects the temporary nature of fame in popular culture. But because this fame is not built on sustained achievement or deeper cultural impact, it often proves fleeting.
The study of celebrity is essential to understanding today’s media-saturated society. Here, we see how celebrity images are constructed as a brand, how fame is commodified and marketed through PR strategies, endorsements and social media and how celebrities influence business and social and political discourse.
Celebrities are no longer limited to entertainment; through their platforms on social media, television, film and other media outlets, celebrities model behaviors and values that become cultural benchmarks. In addition, individuals and groups form collective identities around celebrities who embody the traits or lifestyles they admire. Celebrities represent aspirational versions of success, beauty, wealth and influence.
But celebrity culture also prioritizes image over substance and blurs the line between fame and genuine accomplishment and talent. The contemporary culture of celebrity transforms fame into a potent form of capital, obscures the line between public and private life, turns self-expression into a performance and reduces individuals to marketable brands.
Understanding celebrity culture helps us critically assess today’s cultural environment, where image overshadows substance.